Until the middle of this century, concerns about the ethics of the practice of medicine centered around therapeutic medicine, not research medicine. Behavioral research was not usually considered at all when discussing research risk until the late sixties.

National and international efforts to protect the rights and welfare of human subjects of research have occurred often in response to ethical violations—situations in which researchers were found to have ignored the fundamental rights of human subjects.

Infamous Cases: Ethical Violations in Research Involving Humans

Nazi War Crimes of a Medical Nature

Regulatory response

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